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Article #43: The Black Space Experience

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The roots of the black space experience Bluford has been inducted into the
date back some 8,500 years when the first International Space Hall of Fame (A.D.
lunar calendar was crafted from a bone. 1997) and "has spoken before many
Like ancient peoples elsewhere in the groups... where he serves as a role
world, Africans (sub-Saharan black model," all possible because his mother,
peoples) "shared the same inspiration and a teacher, and father, an engineer, had
awe of the stars" and "struggled to make encouraged him and his three brothers to
sense of it [through] creativity and "set their goals high" and because he
intelligence" [1] patiently taking ignored a school counselor's advice
"countless generations to watch, justify to"learn a trade, since he was not
and map the heavens"[2] and define their college material."[24]
relationship with them. According to Dr. The next black astronaut to make history
Thebe Medupe, a prominent astronomer at was Dr. Mae Jemison (b. A.D. 1956), the
the University of Cape Town and the South daughter of a maintenance worker (her
African Astronomical Observatory, father) and teacher (her mother) who
"[Africans] shaped constellations out of earned a BS in Chemical Engineering, a BA
stellar patterns and came up with stories in African-American studies, and a
about them, ...constructed calendars to doctorate in medicine. Notably, during
organize their lives and even erected her years in medical school and
stone alignments... to follow the sun's participation in the Peace Corps she had
'path' throughout the year."[3] It was provided medical care to persons in Cuba,
for this reason that Bernard Harris, Jr., Kenya, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and
the first black astronaut to walk in Thailand.
space stated, "When we look at history When the space shuttle Endeavor was
itself, you realize that astronomy - the launched on September 12, A.D. 1992, Dr.
study of the stars - that whole origin... Jemison became the first African-American
[was] being done by people from Africa. woman in space. Following her 7 day, 22
And now I get to fly amongst those same hour, 30 minute mission aboard Endeavor
stars" when emphasizing the importance of as a mission specialist (STS-47 September
knowing and understanding history - "If 12-20, A.D. 1992), Jemison retired from
you don't know where you are and where space flight to found The Jemison Group
you came from, you'll never know where "to research, develop and implement
you are going."[4] advanced technologies suited to the
African societies dating back to the social, political, cultural and economic
ancient times relied on "the stars to context of the individual, especially for
predict the likelihood of rain, so they the developing world."[25] Yet despite
could prepare the land"[5] for planting, her post NASA pursuits, Dr. Jemison in
for migration (e.g. the Bozo people of following the encouragement and support
Mali "migrate along the delta of the given by her parents, consistently
Niger river when the Pleiades transit encourages African-Americans to pursue
overhead and begin their fishing season scientific careers especially with the
when the Pleiades leave the night space program - "This is the one time
sky"[6]) and navigation as well as for when we can get in on the ground
determining points in time, leading to floor."[26]
the construction of megalith (large A third history making black astronaut
stone) observatories and the development was Dr. Bernard A. Harris, Jr. (b. A.D.
of lunar-based calendars, all of which 1956), a private pilot and flight surgeon
were critical since for them, "knowledge with a doctorate in medical science and a
about the movement of the stars [was] a master's degree in biomedical science who
matter of life and death."[7] had dreamed "to look down on the clouds"
Accordingly the Moon and the stars had a since he was 8. "I was watching what was
special place in African societies. In happening with the space program,
the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) watching these guys go up... people
"the Milky Way is called 'God's clock' called them American heroes. I wanted to
[since] it is orientated east-west during be a hero too," he declared when thinking
the wet season and... north-south during back to the infancy of the U.S. space
the middle of the dry season.[8] At the program.[27] On February 9, A.D. 1995,
same time, in "central Nigeria... a Dr. Harris became the first
strong correlation [is] observed between African-American to walk in space when he
the tilt of the points on the crescent and astronaut Michael Foale (b. A.D.
moon and rainfall. As points tilt to the 1957) "made a five hour space walk to
right, dramatic increases in rain[fall test thermal improvements in space suits
occur and] as points tilt to the left, and to hoist a 2,800 pound telescope that
dramatic decreases in rainfall would aid... efforts to design [the]
[occur].[9] International Space Station."[28]
Two famous African megaliths that made Afterwards, he reflected back to 1963,
use of astronomy are Nabta, built between perhaps the most pivotal year in the
5500 B.C. and 3500 B.C. by Central Civil Rights movement (e.g. the march on
African nomads in southern Egypt near the Washington, D.C. where Martin Luther
modern-day border with Sudan and King, Jr. made his famous "I have a
Namoratunga II, which was erected in 300 dream" speech in August, the Birmingham
B.C. (aligned to the 7 stars of the Church bombing a month later that
Borana calendar - Triangulum, Pleiades, martyred four young black girls, etc.)
Aldebarran, Belletrix, Orion, Saiph, and stating, "Those were some of the best
Sirius)[10] and stands near Kenya's Lake times and worst times. Here on this
Turkana. Based on archeological data, planet we were fighting for human rights
Nabta consisting of "stones aligned with and at the same time we were sending men
the different rising positions of the to the moon."[29] Appropriately, Dr.
Sun... (caused by the Earth's rotation) Harris dedicated his space walk, which he
[used] to determine the seasons"[11] is described as "probably the most wonderful
perhaps the oldest astronomical alignment day of my life"[30] to "all
in the world, 1,000 years older than African-Americans and to African American
Stonehenge. At the same time achievement."[31]
archeological finds indicate that the During his astronaut career, Dr. Bernard
Mursi of Ethiopia and Kushites and Harris, Jr. took part in two missions -
Bambara of Sudan were also influenced by STS-55 (April 26-May 6, A.D. 1993 aboard
and "interested in horizon and zenith Columbia as a mission specialist
(sunrise and sunset) events"[12] as were conducting "a variety of research in
the peoples inhabiting Benin, Togo, and physical and life sciences"[32]) and
Zimbabwe. STS-63 (February 2-11, A.D. 1995 aboard
In Benin and Togo, "the Batamalimba Discovery as payload commander) logging
people designed their houses such that 18 days, 6 hours and 8 minutes in space.
their crossbeams [were] aligned to the Like Bluford, Dr. Harris also serves as
equinox sunrise and sunset" while the an inspiration encouraging "children of
Karanga people constructed "a chevron all races to follow his example - 'Don't
pattern bisected by the solstice Sun" in be afraid to dream... Get... an
the Great Zimbabwe stone city that was education. Be willing to work hard. If
built around A.D. 400 and completed about you do these three things, there is
A.D. 1350 to mark "important astronomical nothing that you can't do in life.'"[33]
seasonal events."[13] In addition, the In addition to the above-mentioned
Pyramids of Meroë built in Kush (now African-American astronauts, others have
part of Sudan) and the more than 1600 also pursued and made the journey to and
stone circles discovered to date in the from space. In the process, two - Ronald
lands comprising the Gambia, Senegal and E. McNair, Ph.D. and Col. Michael A.
Togo are likely further examples of Anderson, made the ultimate sacrifice -
African archaeoastronomy. giving up their lives in quest of
In conjunction with the construction of scientific exploration and discovery for
megaliths, African societies ranging from the benefit of humanity. Summaries of
southern Africa to sub-Saharan northern these inspirational astronauts are listed
Africa, also developed calendars based on below:
the lunar cycle. The oldest such Lt. Col. Michael P. Anderson (A.D.
calendar, the Ishango bone, dating back 1959-A.D. 2003) amassed 24 days, 18
to 6500 B.C. that "was found at the site hours, and 8 minutes in space,
of a fishing village on the shores of participating in STS-89 (January 22-31,
Lake Edward which borders the [Democratic A.D. 1998 aboard Endeavor) and STS-107
Republic of] Congo (DRC) and Uganda"[14] (January 16-February 1, A.D. 2003 aboard
and is believed to have been used for Columbia). Tragically Lt. Col. Anderson
predicting tidal phenomena. At the same lost his life when the "space shuttle
time, another early lunar calendar based Columbia and her crew perished during
on a series of concentric circles ranging entry, 16 minutes before scheduled
in number from 29 to 30 was found in landing"[34] at Cape Canaveral.
"certain caves in Tanzania."[15] Charles F. Bolden, Jr. (b. A.D. 1946)
Even today several African peoples use amassed 28 days, 8 hours, and 37 minutes
lunar calendars. Examples are the Borana in space, participating in STS-61-C
of southern Ethiopia and northwest Kenya, (January 12-18, 1986 aboard Columbia),
the Mursi of Ethiopia, the Ngas of STS-31 (April 24-29, A.D. 1990 aboard
Nigeria, and the Dogon of Mali, each of Discovery), STS-45 (March 24-April 2,
whom either adds an extra month A.D. 1992 aboard Atlantis as the first
consisting of 11 days at the end of the African-American mission commander), and
year or a 33-day month at the end of each STS-60 (February 3-11, A.D. 1994 aboard
third year to compensate for the Discovery).
difference that arises from the 365.25 Robert L. Curbeam, Jr. (b. A.D. 1962)
day solar year (period of time it takes amassed 24 days, 17 hours, and 49 minutes
the Earth to complete one revolution in space, participating in STS-85 (August
around the Sun) in which there are 12 7-19, A.D. 1997 aboard Discovery) and
lunar cycles (period of time ranging from STS-98 (February 7-20, 2001 aboard
the first rise of the new moon to the Atlantis).
final setting of the full moon) Col. Frederick D. Gregory (b. A.D. 1941)
consisting of 29.5 days each. The Ngas amassed 18 days, 23 hours, and 4 minutes
use the term "bergu" for each 29.5-day in space, participating in STS-51-B
month and "gamwe" to describe the final (April 29-May 6, A.D. 1985 aboard
11 days that follow the 12th and last Challenger), STS-33 (November 22-27, A.D.
"bergu" of each year. In addition, some 1989 aboard Discovery), and STS-44
peoples in South Africa "still use the (November 24-December 1, A.D. 1991 aboard
same word for month and moon"[16] because Atlantis).
of their connotative relationship. Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. (A.D. 1950-A.D.
Because of their interest in the heavens 1986) amassed 7 days, 23 hours, and 15
and their attempt to create intelligible minutes in space during STS-41-B
frameworks around them, Africans also (February 3-11, A.D. 1984 aboard
developed myths and legends surrounding Challenger). Tragically Dr. McNair
celestial bodies and constellations. perished along with the rest of the
"The Pleiades and Sirius figure largely Challenger crew when the space shuttle
in the star lore of the peoples of Mali exploded minutes after launch on January
and Ethiopia... The Milky Way... and 28, A.D. 1986 for the STS-51-L mission.
Venus... are focused on all over Africa, Stephanie D. Wilson (b. A.D. 1966) who
while the Southern Cross is important to to date has amassed 12 days, 18 hours,
the Zulu, Sotho, and Tswana [peoples] of and 36 minutes in space (STS-121 - July
southern Africa and... recognized as a 4-17, A.D. 2006 aboard Discovery).
navigation constellation."[17] Based on the growing roll of
Examples of these African myths and African-American astronauts, which likely
legends are as follows: The Bushmen who will include Joan Higginbotham (b. A.D.
inhabit southern Africa "believe the 1964) who is slated for launch this fall,
Milky Way was made by a Bushman girl who the efforts of Dr. Beth A. Brown, a
wished for a little light and threw wood pioneering African-American
ashes into the sky [creating] different astrophysicist, the creation of a
colored stars by throwing different "National Astrophysics and Space Science
colored burning roots into the air. Programme" in South Africa consisting of
[There are also two other stories. One a collaboration among the country's
involves] two stars of the Southern "universities and research institutes
Cross, Alpha and Gamma Crucis... The [that focuses on] honors and masters
creator had two sons called Khanka and students [to create a new generation of
Khoma. One day the two boys went hunting space scientists][35], and the A.D. 2005
with a family of lions, but the debut of the 11-meter-wide South African
treacherous lions ate the boys. In his Large Telescope (SALT) at Sutherland,
anger and despair, the creator made fire "the Southern Hemisphere's largest and
and hid it in a meteor disguised as an most advanced telescope"[36] the black
eland's horn. The creator called down space experience can only grow richer as
the meteor and it hit [and killed] the the future remains bright like the
lion. [Afterwards the creator's] heart Earth's shining star, the Sun.
was calmed and there was fire for ______________________________
everyone. Khanka and Khoma are Alpha Endnotes:
Crucis and Gamma Crucis. [The next is [1] Ancient Astronomy In Africa. Fall
about Pleiades and the three stars of the 1998. 18 July 2006.
Orion Belt, in which] ...seven daughters [2] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy.
of the sky god (Pleiades) were married to Center for Archaeoastronomy. June 1998.
a hunter. One evening [he] went hunting 18 July 2006.
[for] zebras (the three stars of Orion's [3] Africans studied astronomy in
Belt). He was such a bad hunter that his medieval times. The Royal Society. 30
arrow missed, and because he was afraid January 2006. 18 July 2006.
of the nearby lion (Betelgeuse, another [4] Kathy Nellis. Trip to the stars
star) he left the arrow where it lay (now rooted in history. 24 February 1996.
known as Orion's sword). [Afterwards, 18 July 2006.
being] ...too embarrassed to [return] [5] M. Panther. Africans Studied
home to his wives because he did not have Astronomy in Medieval Times. 26 February
meat to bring to them, ...he [stayed] 2006. 18 July 2006.
out... in the cold as the star called [6] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy.
Aldebaran."[18] Center for Archaeoastronomy. June 1998.
In addition to merely studying astronomy, 18 July 2006.
developing lunar calendars, and creating [7] Curtis Abraham. Astronomy and the
myths and legends about the heavens, legacy of apartheid. New 15 January
Africans also exchanged information and 2005. 18 July 2006.
ideas with Islamic scientists following [8] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy.
the establishment of protected trade Center for Archaeoastronomy. June 1998.
routes in the areas encompassing Mali, 18 July 2006.
Mauritania and Senegal. The peak of this [9] Ngas. Cultural Astronomy. 18 July
exchange occurred during the rule of the 2006.
Ghana, Mali and Songhay empires (c. A.D. [10] Namouratunga II. Archaeoastronomy
1200-A.D. 1591) when Islamic traders Africa. 18 July 2006.
traveled to African cities in search of [11] M. Panther. Africans Studied
gold, the economic standard of their Astronomy in Medieval Times. 26 February
lands after Iranian scholar, Ibn al-Faqih 2006. 18 July 2006.
al-Hamadhani wrote in c. A.D. 900: [12] A.F. Veni. Tropical
It is said that beyond the source of the archeoastronomy. Science 213. 1981.
Nile is darkness and beyond the darkness [13] Laurence R. Doyle and Edward W.
are waters which make the gold grow... to Frank. Astronomy of Africa.
the town of Ghana is a three-months' Encyclopedia of the History of Science,
journey through deserts. In the country Technology and Medicine in Non-Western
of Ghana gold grows in the sand as Cultures. 18 July 2006.
carrots do, and is plucked at [14] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy.
sunrise.[19] Center for Archaeoastronomy. June
During the height of this trans-Saharan 1998. 18 July 2006.
trade, Islamic scholars established [15] Laurence R. Doyle and Edward W.
learning centers and introduced the Frank. Astronomy of Africa.
written language, resulting in the Encyclopedia of the History of Science,
creation of thousands of African books Technology and Medicine in Non-Western
pertaining to astronomy and science. Cultures. 18 July 2006.
However, it was not until late in the [16] M. Panther. Africans Studied
20th century, some two decades after the Astronomy in Medieval Times. 26 February
United States and the now defunct Soviet 2006. 18 July 2006.
Union (USSR) had begun their manned space [17] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy.
programs, that descendents of these early Center for Archaeoastronomy. June
African astronomers actually made it into 1998. 18 July 2006.
space, much in part due to the efforts of [18] Curtis Abraham. Astronomy and the
Luke Weathers (b. A.D. 1920), a black legacy of apartheid. New 15 January
World War II veteran with a degree in 2005. 18 July 2006.
science and biology and others who had [19] John Reader. Africa: A Biography
"pressured the U.S. military to train a of the Continent. Vintage Books: New
corps of black pilots at Tuskegee York. 1997. 286.
Institute in Alabama... to prove that [20] WWII flier paved way for black
black Americans... could handle the most astronauts. News 4. 10 July 2006.
challenging... jobs."[20] [21] Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr.
This led to June A.D. 1967 when another Biography. NASA and About, Inc. 2006.
pilot, Major Robert H. Lawrence, Jr. 18 July 2006.
(A.D. 1935-A.D. 1967) with over 2,500 [22] Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr. 3 July
flight hours behind him, successfully 2006. 18 July 2006.
completed the Air Force's Flight Test [23] Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez. 4 July
Pilot Training School at Edwards Air 2006. 18 July 2006.
Force Base in California and was named [24] Nick Greene. Guion "Guy" Bluford -
the first African-American astronaut. NASA Astronaut. About, Inc. 2006. 18
"Though he never made it into space"[21] July 2006.
dying on December 8th when the F-104 [25] Mae Jemison. 28 June 2006. 18
Starfighter piloted by a trainee whom he July 2006.
was instructing crashed, Major Lawrence [26] Marilyn Marshall. Child of the '60s
had participated in the Air Force's set to become first Black woman in space.
Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) Program, Gale Group. 2004. 18 July 2006.
a project that "would eventually lead to [27] First African-American To Walk In
today's International Space Station."[22] Space Speaks In Palestine. 18 January
Despite the setback, blacks were not 2005. 21 July 2006.
going to be denied their place in space. [28] 1997 Honorees - Bernard A. Harris,
Following the success of the Civil Rights Jr., M.D. Dominion. 2006. 21 July
movement, new opportunities emerged much 2006.
in part due to improved education and [29] First African-American To Walk In
equal opportunity chances. As a result Space Speaks In Palestine. 18 January
greater numbers of blacks enrolled and 2005. 21 July 2006.
were accepted into America's space [30] Nick Greene. Dr. Bernard Harris,
program. Jr., Biography. About, Inc. 2006.
History was made on September 18, A.D. [31] 1997 Honorees - Bernard A. Harris,
1980 when Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez (b. A.D. Jr., M.D. Dominion. 2006. 21 July
1942), a Cuban of black-hispanic heritage 2006.
was launched into space as part of the [32] Nick Greene. Dr. Bernard Harris,
Soyuz 38 crew. "After docking with Jr., Biography. About, Inc. 2006.
Salyut 6, Tamayo (a Cuban Air Force [33] Nick Greene. Dr. Bernard Harris,
pilot) and [his partner Yuri] Romanenko Jr., Biography. About, Inc. 2006.
(b. A.D. 1944) conducted experiments in [34] Michael Phillip Anderson. 3 Julye
an attempt to find [the cause] of space 2006. 18 July 2006.
sickness, and... a cure."[23] He spent [35] Space science programme takes off.
188 hours and 43 minutes in space before Science in Africa. May 2003. 18 July
returning to Earth on September 26, A.D. 2006.
1980. [36] George Faraday. South Africa to
This was followed by the August 30, A.D. Build Largest Telescope South of the
1983 launch of Guion "Guy" Bluford (b. Equator. Africa News Service. 8 July
A.D. 1942), a U.S. Air Force Colonel who 1998. 21 July 2006.
had majored in aerospace engineering and Additional Sources:
minored in laser physics, aboard the Bail Davidson. The Lost Cities of
space shuttle Challenger on the STS-8 Africa. Little, Brown and Company. USA.
mission which lasted 145 hours. Upon 1959.
entering space during the worlds' first Bernard A. Harris, Jr. 11 May 2006.
night launch, Guy Bluford became the 18 July 2006.
first African-American astronaut to make Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 4 July 2006.
the trip. 21 July 2006.
Afterwards Guy Bluford participated in Frederick D. Gregory. 8 June 2006. 18
three additional missions - STS-61-A July 2006.
(October 30-November 6, A.D. 1985 aboard Guion Bluford. 15 June 2006. 18 July
Challenger), STS-39 (April 28-May 6, A.D. 2006.
1991 aboard Discovery), and STS-53 Nick Greene. Dr. Mae C. Jamison. About,
(December 2-December 9, A.D. 1992 aboard Inc. 2006.
Discovery). During his career, Col. Nick Greene. Ronald E. McNair (Ph.D.).
Bluford who retired from active space About, Inc. 2006.
duty in 1993, amassed 28 days, 16 hours Robert Curbeam. 21 June 2006. 18 July
and 33 minutes in space. Since then Col. 2006.






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