The Black Space Experience

The roots of the black space experience date back30-November 6, A.D. 1985 aboard Challenger), STS-39
some 8,500 years when the first lunar calendar was(April 28-May 6, A.D. 1991 aboard Discovery), and
crafted from a bone. Like ancient peoples elsewhereSTS-53 (December 2-December 9, A.D. 1992 aboard
in the world, Africans (sub-Saharan black peoples)Discovery). During his career, Col. Bluford who retired
“shared the same inspiration and awe of thefrom active space duty in 1993, amassed 28 days, 16
stars” and “struggled to make sense ofhours and 33 minutes in space. Since then Col. Bluford
it [through] creativity and intelligence” [1]has been inducted into the International Space Hall of
patiently taking “countless generations toFame (A.D. 1997) and “has spoken before
watch, justify and map the heavens”[2] andmany groups… where he serves as a role
define their relationship with them. According to Dr.model,” all possible because his mother, a
Thebe Medupe, a prominent astronomer at theteacher, and father, an engineer, had encouraged him
University of Cape Town and the South Africanand his three brothers to “set their goals
Astronomical Observatory, “[Africans] shapedhigh” and because he ignored a school
constellations out of stellar patterns and came upcounselor’s advice to”learn a trade,
with stories about them, …constructedsince he was not college material.”[24]
calendars to organize their lives and even erectedThe next black astronaut to make history was Dr.
stone alignments… to follow the sun’sMae Jemison (b. A.D. 1956), the daughter of a
‘path’ throughout the year.”[3] Itmaintenance worker (her father) and teacher (her
was for this reason that Bernard Harris, Jr., the firstmother) who earned a BS in Chemical Engineering, a
black astronaut to walk in space stated,BA in African-American studies, and a doctorate in
“When we look at history itself, you realizemedicine. Notably, during her years in medical school
that astronomy – the study of the starsand participation in the Peace Corps she had provided
– that whole origin… [was] being done bymedical care to persons in Cuba, Kenya, Liberia, Sierra
people from Africa. And now I get to fly amongstLeone, and Thailand.
those same stars” when emphasizing theWhen the space shuttle Endeavor was launched on
importance of knowing and understanding historySeptember 12, A.D. 1992, Dr. Jemison became the
– “If you don’t know where youfirst African-American woman in space. Following her
are and where you came from, you’ll never7 day, 22 hour, 30 minute mission aboard Endeavor
know where you are going.”[4]as a mission specialist (STS-47 September 12-20, A.D.
African societies dating back to the ancient times1992), Jemison retired from space flight to found The
relied on “the stars to predict the likelihood ofJemison Group “to research, develop and
rain, so they could prepare the land”[5] forimplement advanced technologies suited to the social,
planting, for migration (e.g. the Bozo people of Malipolitical, cultural and economic context of the
“migrate along the delta of the Niger riverindividual, especially for the developing
when the Pleiades transit overhead and begin theirworld.”[25] Yet despite her post NASA
fishing season when the Pleiades leave the nightpursuits, Dr. Jemison in following the encouragement
sky”[6]) and navigation as well as forand support given by her parents, consistently
determining points in time, leading to the constructionencourages African-Americans to pursue scientific
of megalith (large stone) observatories and thecareers especially with the space program –
development of lunar-based calendars, all of which“This is the one time when we can get in on
were critical since for them, “knowledge aboutthe ground floor.”[26]
the movement of the stars [was] a matter of lifeA third history making black astronaut was Dr.
and death.”[7]Bernard A. Harris, Jr. (b. A.D. 1956), a private pilot and
Accordingly the Moon and the stars had a specialflight surgeon with a doctorate in medical science and
place in African societies. In the Democratic Republica master’s degree in biomedical science who
of Congo (DRC) “the Milky Way is calledhad dreamed “to look down on the
‘God’s clock’ [since] it isclouds” since he was 8. “I was watching
orientated east-west during the wet seasonwhat was happening with the space program,
and… north-south during the middle of the drywatching these guys go up… people called them
season.[8] At the same time, in “centralAmerican heroes. I wanted to be a hero too,”
Nigeria… a strong correlation [is] observedhe declared when thinking back to the infancy of the
between the tilt of the points on the crescent moonU.S. space program.[27] On February 9, A.D. 1995, Dr.
and rainfall. As points tilt to the right, dramaticHarris became the first African-American to walk in
increases in rain[fall occur and] as points tilt to thespace when he and astronaut Michael Foale (b. A.D.
left, dramatic decreases in rainfall [occur].[9]1957) “made a five hour space walk to test
Two famous African megaliths that made use ofthermal improvements in space suits and to hoist a
astronomy are Nabta, built between 5500 B.C. and2,800 pound telescope that would aid… efforts
3500 B.C. by Central African nomads in southernto design [the] International Space Station.”[28]
Egypt near the modern-day border with Sudan andAfterwards, he reflected back to 1963, perhaps the
Namoratunga II, which was erected in 300 B.C.most pivotal year in the Civil Rights movement (e.g.
(aligned to the 7 stars of the Borana calendar –the march on Washington, D.C. where Martin Luther
Triangulum, Pleiades, Aldebarran, Belletrix, Orion, Saiph,King, Jr. made his famous “I have a
and Sirius)[10] and stands near Kenya’s Lakedream” speech in August, the Birmingham
Turkana. Based on archeological data, NabtaChurch bombing a month later that martyred four
consisting of “stones aligned with the differentyoung black girls, etc.) stating, “Those were
rising positions of the Sun… (caused by thesome of the best times and worst times. Here on
Earth’s rotation) [used] to determine thethis planet we were fighting for human rights and at
seasons”[11] is perhaps the oldest astronomicalthe same time we were sending men to the
alignment in the world, 1,000 years older thanmoon.”[29] Appropriately, Dr. Harris dedicated
Stonehenge. At the same time archeological findshis space walk, which he described as
indicate that the Mursi of Ethiopia and Kushites and“probably the most wonderful day of my
Bambara of Sudan were also influenced by andlife”[30] to “all African-Americans and to
“interested in horizon and zenith (sunrise andAfrican American achievement.”[31]
sunset) events”[12] as were the peoplesDuring his astronaut career, Dr. Bernard Harris, Jr.
inhabiting Benin, Togo, and Zimbabwe.took part in two missions – STS-55 (April
In Benin and Togo, “the Batamalimba people26-May 6, A.D. 1993 aboard Columbia as a mission
designed their houses such that their crossbeamsspecialist conducting “a variety of research in
[were] aligned to the equinox sunrise andphysical and life sciences”[32]) and STS-63
sunset” while the Karanga people constructed(February 2-11, A.D. 1995 aboard Discovery as
“a chevron pattern bisected by the solsticepayload commander) logging 18 days, 6 hours and 8
Sun” in the Great Zimbabwe stone city thatminutes in space. Like Bluford, Dr. Harris also serves
was built around A.D. 400 and completed about A.D.as an inspiration encouraging “children of all
1350 to mark “important astronomical seasonalraces to follow his example –
events.”[13] In addition, the Pyramids of‘Don’t be afraid to dream…
Meroë built in Kush (now part of Sudan) andGet… an education. Be willing to work hard. If
the more than 1600 stone circles discovered to dateyou do these three things, there is nothing that you
in the lands comprising the Gambia, Senegal and Togocan’t do in life.’”[33]
are likely further examples of AfricanIn addition to the above-mentioned African-American
archaeoastronomy.astronauts, others have also pursued and made the
In conjunction with the construction of megaliths,journey to and from space. In the process, two
African societies ranging from southern Africa to– Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. and Col. Michael A.
sub-Saharan northern Africa, also developed calendarsAnderson, made the ultimate sacrifice – giving
based on the lunar cycle. The oldest such calendar,up their lives in quest of scientific exploration and
the Ishango bone, dating back to 6500 B.C. thatdiscovery for the benefit of humanity. Summaries of
“was found at the site of a fishing village onthese inspirational astronauts are listed below:
the shores of Lake Edward which borders theLt. Col. Michael P. Anderson (A.D. 1959-A.D. 2003)
[Democratic Republic of] Congo (DRC) andamassed 24 days, 18 hours, and 8 minutes in space,
Uganda”[14] and is believed to have been usedparticipating in STS-89 (January 22-31, A.D. 1998
for predicting tidal phenomena. At the same time,aboard Endeavor) and STS-107 (January 16-February
another early lunar calendar based on a series of1, A.D. 2003 aboard Columbia). Tragically Lt. Col.
concentric circles ranging in number from 29 to 30Anderson lost his life when the “space shuttle
was found in “certain caves inColumbia and her crew perished during entry, 16
Tanzania.”[15]minutes before scheduled landing”[34] at Cape
Even today several African peoples use lunarCanaveral.
calendars. Examples are the Borana of southernCharles F. Bolden, Jr. (b. A.D. 1946) amassed 28
Ethiopia and northwest Kenya, the Mursi of Ethiopia,days, 8 hours, and 37 minutes in space, participating
the Ngas of Nigeria, and the Dogon of Mali, each ofin STS-61-C (January 12-18, 1986 aboard Columbia),
whom either adds an extra month consisting of 11STS-31 (April 24-29, A.D. 1990 aboard Discovery),
days at the end of the year or a 33-day month atSTS-45 (March 24-April 2, A.D. 1992 aboard Atlantis
the end of each third year to compensate for theas the first African-American mission commander),
difference that arises from the 365.25 day solar yearand STS-60 (February 3-11, A.D. 1994 aboard
(period of time it takes the Earth to complete oneDiscovery).
revolution around the Sun) in which there are 12 lunarRobert L. Curbeam, Jr. (b. A.D. 1962) amassed 24
cycles (period of time ranging from the first rise ofdays, 17 hours, and 49 minutes in space, participating
the new moon to the final setting of the full moon)in STS-85 (August 7-19, A.D. 1997 aboard Discovery)
consisting of 29.5 days each. The Ngas use the termand STS-98 (February 7-20, 2001 aboard Atlantis).
“bergu” for each 29.5-day month andCol. Frederick D. Gregory (b. A.D. 1941) amassed 18
“gamwe” to describe the final 11 daysdays, 23 hours, and 4 minutes in space, participating
that follow the 12th and last “bergu” ofin STS-51-B (April 29-May 6, A.D. 1985 aboard
each year. In addition, some peoples in South AfricaChallenger), STS-33 (November 22-27, A.D. 1989
“still use the same word for month andaboard Discovery), and STS-44 (November
moon”[16] because of their connotative24-December 1, A.D. 1991 aboard Atlantis).
relationship.Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. (A.D. 1950-A.D. 1986)
Because of their interest in the heavens and theiramassed 7 days, 23 hours, and 15 minutes in space
attempt to create intelligible frameworks aroundduring STS-41-B (February 3-11, A.D. 1984 aboard
them, Africans also developed myths and legendsChallenger). Tragically Dr. McNair perished along with
surrounding celestial bodies and constellations.the rest of the Challenger crew when the space
“The Pleiades and Sirius figure largely in theshuttle exploded minutes after launch on January 28,
star lore of the peoples of Mali and Ethiopia…A.D. 1986 for the STS-51-L mission.
The Milky Way… and Venus… are focusedStephanie D. Wilson (b. A.D. 1966) who to date has
on all over Africa, while the Southern Cross isamassed 12 days, 18 hours, and 36 minutes in space
important to the Zulu, Sotho, and Tswana [peoples](STS-121 – July 4-17, A.D. 2006 aboard
of southern Africa and… recognized as aDiscovery).
navigation constellation.”[17]Based on the growing roll of African-American
Examples of these African myths and legends are asastronauts, which likely will include Joan Higginbotham
follows: The Bushmen who inhabit southern Africa(b. A.D. 1964) who is slated for launch this fall, the
“believe the Milky Way was made by aefforts of Dr. Beth A. Brown, a pioneering
Bushman girl who wished for a little light and threwAfrican-American astrophysicist, the creation of a
wood ashes into the sky [creating] different colored“National Astrophysics and Space Science
stars by throwing different colored burning roots intoProgramme” in South Africa consisting of a
the air. [There are also two other stories. Onecollaboration among the country’s
involves] two stars of the Southern Cross, Alpha and“universities and research institutes [that
Gamma Crucis… The creator had two sonsfocuses on] honors and masters students [to create
called Khanka and Khoma. One day the two boysa new generation of space scientists][35], and the
went hunting with a family of lions, but theA.D. 2005 debut of the 11-meter-wide South African
treacherous lions ate the boys. In his anger andLarge Telescope (SALT) at Sutherland, “the
despair, the creator made fire and hid it in a meteorSouthern Hemisphere’s largest and most
disguised as an eland’s horn. The creator calledadvanced telescope”[36] the black space
down the meteor and it hit [and killed] the lion.experience can only grow richer as the future
[Afterwards the creator’s] heart was calmedremains bright like the Earth’s shining star, the
and there was fire for everyone. Khanka and KhomaSun.
are Alpha Crucis and Gamma Crucis. [The next is______________________________
about Pleiades and the three stars of the Orion Belt,Endnotes:
in which] …seven daughters of the sky god[1] Ancient Astronomy In Africa. Fall 1998. 18 July
(Pleiades) were married to a hunter. One evening [he]2006. [
went hunting [for] zebras (the three stars of[2] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for
Orion’s Belt). He was such a bad hunter thatArchaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006.
his arrow missed, and because he was afraid of the[3] Africans studied astronomy in medieval times. The
nearby lion (Betelgeuse, another star) he left theRoyal Society. 30 January 2006. 18 July 2006. [
arrow where it lay (now known as Orion’s[4] Kathy Nellis. Trip to the stars rooted in history. 24
sword). [Afterwards, being] …too embarrassedFebruary 1996. 18 July 2006.
to [return] home to his wives because he did not[5] M. Panther. Africans Studied Astronomy in
have meat to bring to them, …he [stayed]Medieval Times. 26 February 2006. 18 July 2006.
out… in the cold as the star called[6] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for
Aldebaran.”[18]Archaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006.
In addition to merely studying astronomy, developing[7] Curtis Abraham. Astronomy and the legacy of
lunar calendars, and creating myths and legends aboutapartheid. New 15 January 2005. 18 July 2006.
the heavens, Africans also exchanged information[8] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for
and ideas with Islamic scientists following theArchaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006.
establishment of protected trade routes in the areas[9] Ngas. Cultural Astronomy. 18 July 2006.
encompassing Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. The peak[10] Namouratunga II. Archaeoastronomy Africa. 18
of this exchange occurred during the rule of theJuly 2006.
Ghana, Mali and Songhay empires (c. A.D. 1200-A.D.[11] M. Panther. Africans Studied Astronomy in
1591) when Islamic traders traveled to African citiesMedieval Times. 26 February 2006. 18 July 2006.
in search of gold, the economic standard of their[12] A.F. Veni. Tropical archeoastronomy. Science 213.
lands after Iranian scholar, Ibn al-Faqih al-Hamadhani1981.
wrote in c. A.D. 900:[13] Laurence R. Doyle and Edward W. Frank.
It is said that beyond the source of the Nile isAstronomy of Africa. Encyclopedia of the History of
darkness and beyond the darkness are waters whichScience, Technology and Medicine in Non-Western
make the gold grow… to the town of Ghana isCultures. 18 July 2006.
a three-months’ journey through deserts. In[14] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for
the country of Ghana gold grows in the sand asArchaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006.
carrots do, and is plucked at sunrise.[19][15] Laurence R. Doyle and Edward W. Frank.
During the height of this trans-Saharan trade, IslamicAstronomy of Africa. Encyclopedia of the History of
scholars established learning centers and introducedScience, Technology and Medicine in Non-Western
the written language, resulting in the creation ofCultures. 18 July 2006.
thousands of African books pertaining to astronomy[16] M. Panther. Africans Studied Astronomy in
and science.Medieval Times. 26 February 2006. 18 July 2006.
However, it was not until late in the 20th century,[17] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for
some two decades after the United States and theArchaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006.
now defunct Soviet Union (USSR) had begun their[18] Curtis Abraham. Astronomy and the legacy of
manned space programs, that descendents of theseapartheid. New 15 January 2005. 18 July 2006.
early African astronomers actually made it into space,[19] John Reader. Africa: A Biography of the
much in part due to the efforts of Luke WeathersContinent. Vintage Books: New York. 1997. 286.
(b. A.D. 1920), a black World War II veteran with a[20] WWII flier paved way for black astronauts.
degree in science and biology and others who hadNews 4. 10 July 2006.
“pressured the U.S. military to train a corps of[21] Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr. Biography. NASA and
black pilots at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama…About, Inc. 2006. 18 July 2006.
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This led to June A.D. 1967 when another pilot, Major[23] Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez. 4 July 2006. 18
Robert H. Lawrence, Jr. (A.D. 1935-A.D. 1967) withJuly 2006.
over 2,500 flight hours behind him, successfully[24] Nick Greene. Guion “Guy” Bluford
completed the Air Force’s Flight Test Pilot– NASA Astronaut. About, Inc. 2006. 18 July
Training School at Edwards Air Force Base in2006.
California and was named the first African-American[25] Mae Jemison. 28 June 2006. 18 July 2006.
astronaut. “Though he never made it into[26] Marilyn Marshall. Child of the ‘60s set to
space”[21] dying on December 8th when thebecome first Black woman in space. Gale Group.
F-104 Starfighter piloted by a trainee whom he was2004. 18 July 2006.
instructing crashed, Major Lawrence had participated[27] First African-American To Walk In Space Speaks
in the Air Force’s Manned Orbiting LaboratoryIn Palestine. 18 January 2005. 21 July 2006.
(MOL) Program, a project that “would[28] 1997 Honorees – Bernard A. Harris, Jr., M.D.
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Station.”[22][29] First African-American To Walk In Space Speaks
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and equal opportunity chances. As a result greaterDominion. 2006. 21 July 2006. [
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Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez (b. A.D. 1942), aAbout, Inc. 2006.
Cuban of black-hispanic heritage was launched into[34] Michael Phillip Anderson. 3 Julye 2006. 18 July
space as part of the Soyuz 38 crew. “After2006.
docking with Salyut 6, Tamayo (a Cuban Air Force[35] Space science programme takes off. Science in
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This was followed by the August 30, A.D. 1983 launchand Company. USA. 1959.
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U.S. Air Force Colonel who had majored in aerospaceCharles F. Bolden, Jr. 4 July 2006. 21 July 2006.
engineering and minored in laser physics, aboard theFrederick D. Gregory. 8 June 2006. 18 July 2006.
space shuttle Challenger on the STS-8 mission whichGuion Bluford. 15 June 2006. 18 July 2006.
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the first African-American astronaut to make the trip.2006.
Afterwards Guy Bluford participated in threeRobert Curbeam. 21 June 2006. 18 July 2006.
additional missions – STS-61-A (October